Famous Stargazers

[ستاره بنیادی]

For thousands of years, people have gazed up at the night sky wondering about our place among the


stars. Today, modern telescopes, satellites, and other powerful tools help answer some of these riddles, but

.many mysteries were solved by astronomers centuries ago

now, we are here to know them!

We Iranian stargazers can also introduce you some of those famous and effective stargazers in the history of Iran

*************************************************
Nicolaus Copernicus (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=2480&viewfull=1#post2480)
Galileo Galilei (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=2523&viewfull=1#post2523)
Sir Isaac Newton (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=2524&viewfull=1#post2524)
Edmond Halley (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=2525&viewfull=1#post2525)
Edwin Hubble (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=2526&viewfull=1#post2526)
Azophy (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=28907&viewfull=1#post28907)
Eratosthenes (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=28886&viewfull=1#post28886)
Omar Khayyáam (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=28889&viewfull=1#post28889)
Ghyath al-Din Jamshid Kashani (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=28901&viewfull=1#post28901)
Tycho Brahe (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=28936&viewfull=1#post28936)
Johannes Kepler (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=28982&viewfull=1#post28982)

Albert Einstein
(http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29141&viewfull=1#post29141)Abu'l Wafa (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29148&viewfull=1#post29148)

Georges Lemaîtr
(http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29240&viewfull=1#post29240)Charles Joseph Messier (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29267&viewfull=1#post29267)
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29337&viewfull=1#post29337)
Herbert A.Friedman (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29397&viewfull=1#post29397)
Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Friedmann (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29466&viewfull=1#post29466)
John Frederick William Herschel (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29516&viewfull=1#post29516)
Johann Franz Encke (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29574&viewfull=1#post29574)
Caroline Lucretia Herschel (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/Caroline%20Lucretia%20Herschel)
Khajeh Nasir-o-Din Tousi (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29614&viewfull=1#post29614)
John Couch Adams (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29617&viewfull=1#post29617)

John Baptist Riccioli
(http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29700&viewfull=1#post29700)
Giovanni Cassini
(http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29740&viewfull=1#post29740)Johann Gottfried Galle (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29764&viewfull=1#post29764)

Christiaan Huygens
(http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29840&viewfull=1#post29840)Gerard Peter Kuiper (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29847&viewfull=1#post29847)
James Alfred (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29849&viewfull=1#post29849)Van Allen (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29849&viewfull=1#post29849)
Jack Horkheimer (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29866&viewfull=1#post29866)
Alfred Harrison Joy (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29874&viewfull=1#post29874)
David H.Levy (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=29935&viewfull=1#post29935)

Joseph-Louis Lagrange
(http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=30302&viewfull=1#post30302) (Manali Kallat) Vainu Bappu (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=30360&viewfull=1#post30360)
Leonard and Thomas Digges (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=30448&viewfull=1#post30448)
Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=30450&viewfull=1#post30450)
Ole Rømer (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=30510&viewfull=1#post30510)
Giuseppe Piazzi (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=30589&viewfull=1#post30589)
Walter Sidney Adams (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=30598&viewfull=1#post30598)
Johann Bode (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=30696&viewfull=1#post30696)
Pierre-Simon Laplace (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=30822&viewfull=1#post30822)
Simon Marius (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=30837&viewfull=1#post30837)
Friedrich Bessel (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=30932&viewfull=1#post30932)
Seth Barnes (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=31019&viewfull=1#post31019)Nicholson (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=31019&viewfull=1#post31019)
Tom Johnson (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=31185&viewfull=1#post31185)
Edward Mills Purcell (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=32200&viewfull=1#post32200)
Edward Emerson Barnard (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=32862&viewfull=1#post32862)
William Wilson Morgan (http://forum.avastarco.com/forum/showthread.php?122-Famous-Stargazers&p=35702&viewfull=1#post35702)

[ستاره بنیادی]

Nicolaus Copernicus
1473-1543


Before the 16th century, the common belief was that the sun and all the other planets revolved around

the Earth. This theory had been developed by the ancient Greek astronomer Ptolemy around A.D. 150, but the

Polish astronomer Copernicus found that the Ptolemaic system could not explain the observed motions of the

planets.
In 1543, he published a book calledThe Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs, which argued that the Earth was not

the center of the universe but was one of the planets and, like them, revolved around the sun. This model of

the solar system is known as the Copernican system
.

Copernicus also said that the Earth spins on its axis once per day, which accounts for why the sky appears to

revolve around the Earth.


Copernicus’s theory explained why superior planets—those further from the sun than Earth—sometimes appear

to be moving backward (inretrogrademotion) with respect to the stars, while those closest to the sun—Mercury

and Venus—always appear to move in only one direction. The Earth is moving in a faster orbit around the sun


than the more distant planets—periodically “passing” them, making them appear to move backward. But Mercury

and Venus are moving in even faster orbits closer to the sun. Copernicus was right about the basic arrangement

of the solar system, but he had no real proof
.

[Amin-Mehraji]

Galileo Galilei

1564–1642

Galileo is considered the first astronomer to use the telescope. The telescope also allowed Galileo to verify Copernicus's theory that the

planets circle the Sun (the heliocentric theory), and not Earth (the Ptolemaic theory). The idea that the Sun

was at the center of our universe was so revolutionary that in 1616 Galileo was condemned by the

Inquisition and forbidden to discuss Copernicus's theories





[/URL][URL="http://www.astroupload.com/uploads/13300768531.gif"]http://www.astroupload.com/uploads/13300768531.gif (http://www.astroupload.com/uploads/13300768531.gif)



The Italian astronomer and physicist Galileo is often credited for inventing the telescope. In truth, a Dutch optician invented the telescope before 1609, but as soon as Galileo learned about this important new instrument, he set about making one of his own.

Galileo worked to improve his telescope and turned it on the sky. In a matter of months he made some astonishing discoveries, including mountains and valleys on the moon, the phases of Venus, and the four big moons orbiting Jupiter. These observations supported the Copernican view of the solar system. Galileo also used the telescope to discover that the Milky Way is composed of countless stars too faint to be seen with the unaided eye.

Galileo’s popular advocacy of the Copernican system provoked the opposition of the Roman Catholic Church, and he was accused of being a heretic. In 1633 he was forced to denounce the Copernican system and was sentenced to house arrest for the rest of his life.




aslo you can read more about Galileo Galilei at This Link (http://inventors.about.com/od/gstartinventors/a/Galileo_Galilei.htm)

[ستاره بنیادی]

Sir Isaac Newton

1643–1727

This British astronomer is best remembered for discovering the principle of gravity. Legend has it that,

seeing an apple fall from a tree, Newton concluded that a force, gravity, pulled it to the ground. He then

used his theory of gravity to explain how the moon is held in its orbit around Earth.

Newton's theory of universal gravitation states that every particle of matter (anything that takes up space)

attracts every other particle of matter. The force becomes weaker as the distance between particles is

increased.

[ستاره بنیادی]

Edmond Halley

1656–1742

This British astronomer was the first to calculate the orbit of a comet. The comet was later named after him.

Halley's comet passes close enough to Earth to be seen about every 76 years. It was last seen in 1986 and

should return in 2061.

[ستاره بنیادی]

Edwin Hubble

The American astronomer Edwin Hubble classified the different types of galaxies in the universe and

developed the theory that the universe is expanding, which is called Hubble's Law. The Hubble space

telescope, which was carried aboard the space shuttle in 1990, is named in his honor

[fampersi]

Hi my dear Avastar's friends
first of all I wanna say my opinion about this topic
I think we should begin with our country's honors and astronomers
therefore I wanna from my friends please put the topic about Iranian astronomers this page
because we are Iranian and we have many famous savant in our country.
I hope all of the people identify their country's honors
thanks

I come from planet along way from here

[fampersi]

Azophy
one of the greatest Iranian astronomer is Azophy
he was born on november 8th 904 in ray
It is reported that the observation galaxies
he is the first person who can observed the galaxies without telescope and who has seen the galaxies
the name of the Azophy is on the moon
his name is on the some of the holes of the moon
because he is a very famous astronomer among many astronomers in the other countries
he has worked a lot, such as discovering lesser magellanic cloud
other one is correcting some ptolemy's fault
and at the end he died on 986 in shiraz

[Fowad]

Hi my dear Avastar's friends
first of all I wanna say my opinion about this topic
I think we should begin with our country's honors and astronomers
therefore I wanna from my friends please put the topic about Iranian astronomers this page
because we are Iranian and we have many famous savant in our country.
I hope all of the people identify their country's honors
thanks

I come from planet along way from here




My opinion is same thank you dear friend :)
And i also suggest that we start new topics for those great persistent effects of them like Astrolabe , astronomical horoscope and etc.

[fampersi]

Thanks Fowad for your good offer

in fact I want from all of the dear members help us to improve my information about my country's honors

and I suggest we continue by hakim omar khayyam

[Amin-Mehraji]

Eratosthenes


http://www.astroupload.com/uploads/13296431161.jpeg

276–195 B.C.


This Greek astronomer was the first to measure the size of Earth accurately. He determined that the earth's polar diameter was about 7,850 miles. (In fact, the distance is actually 7,900.)


more information at This Link (http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Eratosthenes.html)

[هانیه امیری]

(Khayyáam, Omar (1048–1122

Persian mathematician, astronomer, and poet who, on the accession as sultan of Jalal ad Din Malik Shah, was appointed astronomer royal. Other leading astronomers were also brought to the court observatory in Esfahan and, for 18 years, Khayyam supervised and produced work of outstanding quality. During this time, Khayyam led work on compiling astronomical tables and he also contributed to calendar reform in 1079. He measured the length of the year as 365.24219858156 days, which is incredible on two accounts: first that anyone would have the audacity to claim this degree of accuracy (we know now that the length of the year changes in the sixth decimal place within a lifetime) and second that it is astonishingly accurate. For comparison, the length of the year at the end of the 20th century was 365.242190 days.

[رخساره روشنی]

[/URL]


http://www.jazirehdanesh.com/files/daneshnameh/pages/personality/kashani.jpg

Ghyath al-Din Jamshid Kashani
Ghyath al-Din Jamshid Kashani was born about 1380 CE in Kashan, Iran and died on 22 June 1429 in Samarkand, Transoxania (now Uzbekistan). At the time that Kashani was growing up Timur (often known as Tamburlaine) was conquering large regions. He had proclaimed himself sovereign and restorer of the Mongol empire at Samarkand in 1370 and, in 1383, Timur began his conquests in Persia with the capture of Herat. Timur died in 1405 and his empire was divided between his two sons, one of whom was Shah Rokh.


While Timur was undertaking his military campaigns, conditions were very difficult with widespread poverty. Kashani lived in poverty, like so many others at this time, and devoted himself to astronomy and mathematics while moving from town to town. Conditions improved markedly when Shah Rokh took over after his father's death. He brought economic prosperity to the region and strongly supported artistic and intellectual life. With the changing atmosphere, Kashani's life also improved. The first event in Kashani's life which we can date accurately is his observation of an eclipse of the moon which he made in Kashan on 2 June 1406 (He dated many of his works with the exact date on which they were completed.).


It is reasonable to assume that Kashani remained in Kashan where he worked on astronomical texts. He was certainly in his home town on 1 March 1407 when he completed Sullam Al-sama the text of which has survived. The full title of the work means The Stairway of Heaven, on Resolution of Difficulties Met by Predecessors in the Determination of Distances and Sizes (of the heavenly bodies). At this time it was necessary for scientists to obtain patronage from their kings, princes or rulers. Kashani played this card to his advantage and brought himself into favour in the new era where patronage of the arts and sciences became popular. His Compendium of the Science of Astronomy written during 1410-11 was dedicated to one of the descendants of the ruling Timurid dynasty
For Read More About Him Click On This Link:
[URL]http://www.iranchamber.com/personalities/jkashani/jamshid_kashani.php (http://www.iranchamber.com/personalities/jkashani/images/jamshid_kashani.jpg)

[هانیه امیری]

Azophy
one of the greatest Iranian astronomer is Azophy
he was born on november 8th 904 in ray
It is reported that the observation galaxies
he is the first person who can observed the galaxies without telescope and who has seen the galaxies
the name of the Azophy is on the moon
his name is on the some of the holes of the moon
because he is a very famous astronomer among many astronomers in the other countries
he has worked a lot, such as discovering lesser magellanic cloud
other one is correcting some ptolemy's fault
and at the end he died on 986 in shiraz


(Al-Sufi, Abd al-Rahman (AD 903–986

Persian nobleman and astronomer, also known in the West by the Latinized name Azophi, who lived at the court of the Emire Adud ad-Daula and carried out observations based on Greek work, especially the Almagest of Ptolemy. Al-Sufi's The Book of the Fixed Stars (Kitab al-Kawatib al-Thabit al-Musawwar), published in about AD 964, includes a catalogue of 1,018 stars, giving their approximate positions, magnitudes, and colors. It contains Arabic star names that, in corrupted form, are still in use today, and the earliest known reference to the Andromeda galaxy. Al-Sufi also recorded and named a southern celestial feature al-Baqar al-Abyad (the White Bull), which today we know as the Large Magellanic Cloud.

The Book of the Fixed Stars remains an important source of historical information in studies of proper motion and long- period variables.

[Amin-Mehraji]

Tycho Brahe
1546-1601


http://www.astroupload.com/uploads/13296726991.jpg

Before the invention of the telescope, the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe revolutionized astronomy by establishing the importance of accurate observations. He invented an improved sextant and used it to make precise observations of the positions of stars and planets.

Brahe completely recalculated Ptolemy’s astronomical tables, which contained many errors, and catalogued over one thousand stars during his lifetime. He built Europe’s first observatory and taught the art of observation to a generation of astronomers.

In 1572 Brahe made careful observations of a “new star” (actually a supernova) that appeared suddenly in the constellation Cassiopeia. He showed that the object was not in the Earth’s atmosphere but was actually beyond the orbit of the moon. This discredited the prevailing theory that the heavens are static and unchanging.


also you can readThis Link (http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/109N/lectures/tychob.html)

[Amin-Mehraji]

Johannes Kepler
1571-1630


http://www.astroupload.com/uploads/13297233991.jpg


Armed with Tycho Brahe’s very accurate observations of the planets and his own painstaking measurements, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler discovered what we now call Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. These three laws precisely describe the motions of the planets around the sun.

Kepler’s first law states that planets move in elliptical orbits around the sun. This overturned the ancient dogma that the planets move in perfect circles. His second law describes how a planet travels faster in its orbit when it is closer to the sun. The third law describes how the orbital periods of the planets increase with the size of their orbits.

Kepler’s laws were based on the Copernican view of a heliocentric universe. Newton relied on them when he developed his more general law of universal gravitation.


also you can read This Link (http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/109N/1995/lectures/kepler.html)

[Amin-Mehraji]

Albert Einstein

1879-1955


http://www.astroupload.com/uploads/13298473631.jpg



The German physicist Albert Einstein revolutionized our concepts of space and time with his theories of relativity.

In 1905 Einstein published hisspecial theory of relativity.The foundation of the theory is the observation that light moves at a constant speed as measured by all observers, whatever their state of motion. One consequence is that measurements of distance and time are not absolute quantities but vary relative to the motion of an observer. Another is that energy (E) can be converted into mass (m), and vice versa, according to the formula
E = mc2, where c is the speed of light.

Ten years later, Einstein’sgeneral theory of relativityextended this work to include acceleration and gravity—stating that the two are equivalent. Einstein showed that gravity is actually the warping of space by matter. One consequence is that light will follow a curved path when it passes a massive body. Observations of a small apparent shift in the positions of stars near the sun during a solar eclipse in 1919 showed that the theory was correct. General relativity was later used to interpret Hubble’s discovery of the expanding universe.


also you can read more about Albert Einstein at This Link (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein)

[هانیه امیری]

(Abu'l Wafa (AD 940–998




Persian mathematician and astronomer who was the first to describe geometrical constructions possible only with a straightedge and a fixed compass, later dubbed a "rusty compass," that never alters its radius. He pioneered the use of the tangent function, apparently discovered the secant and cosecant functions, and compiled tables of sines and tangents at 15 arc-minute intervals – work done as part of an investigation into the orbit of the moon.

[Amin-Mehraji]

Georges Lemaître

1894-1966


http://www.astroupload.com/uploads/13299227351.jpg



Georges Lemaître, a Belgian cosmologist and Catholic priest, was one of the first scientists to use Einstein’s general theory of relativity to describe the universe as a whole. In 1927, he showed how the expansion of the universe, observed by Hubble, was a natural consequence of the equations of general relativity.

Lemaître also thought about the expansion of the universe in a radically new way. If we could imagine tracing the expansion backward in time, we would see it getting smaller and smaller. Wouldn’t there be a limit to how small it could get? In 1931, Lemaître proposed that at some point in the distant past, the universe was compressed into a tiny object which he called the “cosmic egg.” This cosmic egg would have exploded—launching the expansion of space itself that we still see today. This theory later became known as thebig bangand provided the first scientific description of how the universe began.


aslo you can read more about Georges Lemaître at This Link (http://space.about.com/cs/astronomerbios/a/lemaitrebio.htm)

[هانیه امیری]

(Messier, Charles Joseph (1730–1817






[/URL][URL="http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Messier.jpg"]http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Messier.jpg (http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Messier.jpg)

French astronomer famed for his list of more than 100 bright deep-sky objects, now known to be a variety of nebulae, star clusters, and galaxies . Principally a comet-hunter – Louis XV called him the "Comet Ferret" – Messier compiled his list of other fuzzy-looking objects so that he and others wouldn't keep confusing them for comets.

Little is known about him prior to his joining the Paris Observatory as a draftsman and astronomical recorder. His interest in comets stemmed from the return of Halley's comet, which Edmond Halley predicted would take place around the beginning of 1759. Messier sighted its return on Jan. 12, 1759, an experience that inspired him to search for new comets for the rest of his life. (Although he is attributed with being the first person to re-sight Halley's Comet on French soil, the German amateur astronomer Palitzch is believed to have been the first of all to see it, on Christmas Day, 1758.) His final comet tally stood at 15 unique discoveries and six further co-discoveries. The compilation of his famous catalogue began in about 1760 and took more than two decades, during which time he used a variety of telescopes, including a 6-inch reflector and a 3½-inch refractor.

[Amin-Mehraji]

rno Penzias (1933 )
and Robert Wilson (1936)



http://www.astroupload.com/uploads/13300069791.jpg



In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson decided to use an ultrasensitive microwave antenna to study natural radio emissions from the Milky Way. But what they found instead was an annoying background static. It was there all the time, no matter where they pointed their antenna. They assumed that the problem was with their equipment and spent months trying to eliminate all possible sources of the static, including pigeon droppings inside their giant horn-shaped antenna. Finally they realized that the constant static really must be coming from the sky.

Penzias and Wilson then learned from other astronomers that the microwave background radiation was an expected consequence of the big bang theory. According to the theory, the universe was born in a very hot dense fireball. As it expanded, the fireball cooled. Today, after billions of years of expansion and cooling, the energy of the original fireball remains only as a very faint glow of microwave radiation coming from all directions in the sky.

The discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation was the first evidence to support the big bang theory, and it convinced most astronomers that the theory was correct. In 1978, Penzias and Wilson shared the Nobel prize in physics for their discovery.

[هانیه امیری]

(Friedman, Herbert A. (1916–2001


[/URL][URL="http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Friedman_Herbert.jpg"]http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Friedman_Herbert.jpg (http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Friedman_Herbert.jpg)

American space scientist and astrophysicist who played an important role in the development of X-ray astronomy. After earning a Ph.D. from Johns Hopkins University (1940), he spent most of his career at the US Naval Research Laboratory. He pioneered observations of the X-ray sky using rocket-borne instruments. Although X-rays from the Sun were first detected in 1948 by T. R. Burnright, they were studied systematically from 1949 by Friedman and his colleagues, who observed X-ray activity throughout a full solar cycles of 11 years. Friedman also studied solar ultraviolet radiation and in 1960 produced the first X-ray and ultraviolet photographs of the Sun. In 1965, his observations of an occultation of the Crab nebula by the Moon proved that Tau X-1, the second X-ray source to be detected beyond the Solar System, coincided with the Crab.

[هانیه امیری]

(Friedmann, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1888–1925



[/URL][URL="http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Friedmann.jpg"]http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Friedmann.jpg (http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Friedmann.jpg)




Russian mathematician and physicist who formulated an early Big Bang theory. Born the son of a composer in St. Petersburg, Friedmann w as educated at the university there. He began his scientific career in 1913 at Pavlovsk Observatory in St. Petersburg and in 1918, after war service, was appointed professor of theoretical mechanics at Perm University. In 1920 he returned to St. Petersburg Observatory where he became director shortly before his death from typhoid fever.

Friedmann established an early reputation for his work on atmospheric and meteorological physics. However, he is best known for his 1922 paper on the expanding universe. This arose from work of Einstein in 1917 in which he attempted to apply his equations of general relativity to cosmology. Friedmann developed a theoretical model of the universe using Einstein's theory, in which the average mass density is constant and space has a constant curvature. Different cosmological models are possible depending on whether the curvature is zero, negative, or positive. Such models are called Friedmann universes.

[هانیه امیری]

(Herschel, John Frederick William (1792–1871






[/URL][URL="http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Herschel_John.jpg"]http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Herschel_John.jpg (http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Herschel_John.jpg)



English astronomer, only son of F. William Herschel, who continued his father's observations of nebulae and double stars, and, in 1834, began a survey of the southern sky from the Cape of Good Hope. This survey,the first systematic observation of the sky in the southern hemisphere, yielded 2,307 nebulae and 2,102 double stars which he listed, together with his father's discoveries, in the General Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters – the forerunner of the New General Catalogue. It was during John Herschel's time at the Cape that the great "Moon Hoax" was perpetrated. He was the first to notice the variability of Betelgeuse (1836), the first to measure the solar constant, and a pioneer of stellar photometry.

[هانیه امیری]

(Encke, Johann Franz (1791–1865

German astronomer and mathematician who calculated the orbit of a short-period comet, now named after him Encke's Comet, and also has a division between the A- and F-ring of saturn, discovered in 1838, named in his honor. In 1811, Encke began his study of mathematics at Göttingen under Carl Gauss. In 1816 he moved to the Seeberg Observatory, Switzerland, to work as an observer and, in 1822, was appointed its director. In 1825 he was invited to become director of the Berlin Observatory and in 1844 he took up a professorship at the University of Berlin. He is best known for figuring out, at the suggestion of Jean Pons, the orbital elements of a comet found by Pons in 1818. Pons suspected that one of the three comets discovered in 1818 had already been discovered by Encke in 1805. This comet was found to have a period of 3.3 years and Encke predicted its return for 1822. In 1846 Johann Galle discovered Neptune with the help of star charts edited by Encke.

[هانیه امیری]

(Herschel, Caroline Lucretia (1750–1848



[/URL][URL="http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Herschel_Caroline.jpg"]http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Herschel_Caroline.jpg (http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Herschel_Caroline.jpg)




German astronomer and one of the first female astronomers to be recognized for her work. Sister of William Herschel and aunt of John Herschel, she was born in Hanover and raised to be the household servant, with little education.

After her father's death, William persuaded his mother to let Caroline join him in Bath, England. So in 1772, she went and joined William in astronomical work. In 1783, she began to search for comets and discovered three new nebulae. Between 1786 and 1797, after her discovery of eight comets, she entered the scientific limelight herself. King George III was so impressed that he awarded her £50 a year. When William was made Court Astronomer after his discovery of Uranus in 1781, Caroline was appointed the first official female assistant to this position. She also revised John Flamsteed's star catalogue and published it in 1798 as the Index of Flamsteed's Observations of the Fixed Stars.

[رخساره روشنی]

Philosopher, Mathematician, Astronomer, Theologian and Physician
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Abu Jafar Mohammad Ibn Mohammad Ibn Hassan Nasir-o-Din Tousi (or known as Khajeh Nasir-o-Din Tousi) was born in Tous, Khorasan province of Iran in 1201 A.D. and died in 1274 A.D in Kazemain (in today Iraq). He learnt sciences and philosophy from Kamal-o-Din Ibn Yunus and others. He was one of those who were kidnapped by Hassan-e Sabah's agents and sent to Almout, Hassan's stronghold. In 1256 when Almout was conquered by the Mongols, Nasir-o-Din joined Halagu's service. Halagu Khan was deeply impressed by his knowledge, including his astrological competency; appointed him as one of his ministers, and, later on, as administrator of Auqaf. He was instrumental in the establishment and progress of the observatory at Maragha. In his last year of life he went to Baghdad and died there.


Nasir-o-Din was one of the greatest scientists, philosophers, mathematicians, astronomers, theologians and physicians of the time and was a prolific writer. He made significant contributions to a large number of subjects, and it is indeed difficult to present his work in a few words. He wrote one or several treatises on different sciences and subjects including those on geometry, algebra, arithmetic, trigonometry, medicine, metaphysics, logic, ethics and theology. In addition he wrote poetry in Persian.


In mathematics, his major contribution would seem to be in trigonometry, which was compiled by him as a new subject in its own right for the first time. Also he developed the subject of spherical trigonometry, including six fundamental formulas for the solution of spherical right-angled triangles.


As the chief scientist at the observatory established under his supervision at Maragha, he made significant contributions to astronomy. The observatory was equipped with the best possible instruments, including those collected by the Mongol armies from Baghdad and other Islamic centers. The instruments included astrolabes, representations of constellations, epicycles, shapes of spheres, etc. He himself invented an instrument 'turquet' that contained two planes. After the devoted work of 12 years at the observatory and with the assistance of his group, he produced new astronomical tables called 'Al-Zij-Ilkhani' dedicated to Ilkhan (Halagu Khan). Although Tousi had contemplated completing the tables in 30 years, the time required for the completion of planetary cycles, but he had to complete them in 12 years on orders from Halagu Khan. The tables were largely based on original observations, but also drew upon the then existing knowledge on the subject. The 'Zij Ilkhani' became the most popular tables among astronomers and remained so till the 15th century. Nasir-o-Din pointed out several serious shortcomings in Ptolemy's astronomy and foreshadowed the later dissatisfaction with the system that culminated in the Copernican reforms.


In philosophy, apart from his contribution in logic and metaphysics , his work on ethics entitled Akhlaq-e Nasri became the most important book on the subject, and remained popular for centuries. His book Tajrid al-Aqaid was a major work on al-Kalam (Islamic Scholastic Philosophy) and enjoyed widespread popularity. Several commentaries were written on this book and even a number of supercommentaries on the major commentaries, Sharh Qadim and Sharh Jadid.


The list of his known treatises is exhaustive; Brockelmann lists 56 and Sarton 64. About one-fourth of these concern mathematics, another fourth astronomy, another fourth philosophy and religion, and the remainder other subjects. The books, though originally written in Arabic and Persian, were translated into Latin and other European languages in the Middle Ages and several of these have been printed

[هانیه امیری]

(Adams, John Couch (1819–1892






[/URL][URL="http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Adams_JC.jpg"]http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Adams_JC.jpg (http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Adams_JC.jpg)



English mathematician and astronomer, born in Lidcot, Cornwall, the son of a tenant farmer, who predicted the existence of Neptune. While a student at Cambridge he wrote this note (found only after his death) dated Jul. 3, 1841:
Formed a design at the beginning of this week of investigating, as soon as possible after taking my degree, the irregularities in the motion of Uranus, which are as yet unaccounted for, in order to find whether they may be attributed to the action of an undiscovered planet beyond it; and, if possible, thence to determine the elements of its orbit approximately, which would lead probably to its discovery. Having graduated brilliantly (with more than double the marks of his nearest competitor), he focused his attention on the problem of the trans-Uranian planet. In October 1845 he gave his predicted position for the new world to George Airy, the Astronomer Royal. But Airy procrastinated for nine months until he heard of a similar claim by Urbain Leverrierr. He then instigated a search, but the race was lost: Neptune was found in 1846 by Johann Galle using Leverrier's figures. Adams remained silent throughout the bitter ensuing debate that established his precedence in the discovery. Although eventually he was offered a knighthood and the post of Astronomer Royal after Airy, Adams turned them down and remained at Cambridge as director of the observatory.

[Amin-Mehraji]

john baptist riccioli



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He began studying astronomy at the request of the Catholic Church. Since Riccioli was a Jesuit astronomer living in the Roman Empire, he had access to astronomical knowledge gathered by Jesuit students in India and China. This knowledge was very useful because Chinese and Indian astronomers tracked lunar and solar eclipses and made detailed maps of celestial objects.

This is where the Moon enters our story. With the information he had access to, Riccioli's friend Francesco Grimaldi created the most detailed lunar map known at that time. What does that have to do with John Baptist Riccioli? He published the map of the moon in a work called Almagestum novum.

He published this work in order to discredit the Copernican theory of Heliocentrism. The reason he opposed the ideas of Nicolaus Copernicus is because the Catholic Church at the time believed Earth was at the center of the Solar System.



also you can read more about john baptist riccioli at This Link (http://words.fromoldbooks.org/Chalmers-Biography/r/riccioli-john-baptist.html)

[Amin-Mehraji]

Giovanni Cassini


1625-1712


Italian-born


French



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Giovanni Domenico Cassini was born at the 8th of June 1625. Until 1650 he studied in Genua and Bologna and became (in the year of the death of Christoph Scheiner) professor for astronomy and mathematics at the university of Bologna. He let built an observatory on the tower of the church St. Petronio and was mainly interested in the observation of comets.

1663he was ordered to fortify the citadel of the Italian town and archbishopric of Urbino. But while doing this he also continued to do astronomy, so he calculated the deformation of Jupiter and its rotation time. He watched the phases of Venus, discovered by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), and also refined the visible surface marks of Mars. So besides of the Great Syrte discovered by Christiaan Huygens he discovered the polar caps of the red planet.

1668 the "sun king" Louis XIV. called Cassini to Paris as an observer to the academy of sciences. Here latest he met personally the university professor Christiaan Huygens. Cassini - now Jean-Dominique Cassini - became director of the Paris observatory, but this palace like building was not ready before 1672.

Before the completion of the observatory some of the astronomical instruments, made by Giuseppe Campani arrived 1671 in Paris. These were up to 40 meter long refractor telescopes. Just in the presence of Huygens, the discover of Titan in 1655, Cassini saw another moon of Saturn: Japetus. The moon consists mainly of ice and has the special feature at the surface that nearly one half is very dark. Because of this the moon has a magnitude of around 10 at western elongation, while at eastern elongation it is about 2 magnitudes dimmer. This fact Cassini discovered at continuing observations of "his" moon. The dark area on Japetus, possibly originating by dark dust, is called after his discoverer Cassini region.

1672 Cassini together with Jean Richter (1630-1696) could made parallel observations of the Mars in Paris (France) and Cayenne (French Guyane), using this observation for the indirect determination of the solar parallax as of 9.5 arc seconds as a first approximation. The solar parallax is the virtual shift of the Sun at the sky when seen from two maximum different positions near the Earth equator. The real mean value of the solar parallax is 8.8 arc seconds and can be used for the correct determination of the distance Earth-Sun.

Also in 1672 Cassini discovered Rhea. This is another Saturnian ice moon, which has a mean brightness better than Japetus. With Rhea 8 moon and 6 planets of the solar system were discovered - 14 celestial bodies circeling around the Sun. Cassini interpreted this as a glorification of is chief Louis XIV., so maybe this was the reason that it lasted twelve years before Cassini still as the director of the Paris observatory announced the discovery of two more moons of Saturn: Dione and Tethys. These are a half magnitude dimmer than Rhea, but they are also about a half magnitude brighter than Japetus in eastern elongation. In the meantime in 1675 Cassini was able to sign also for the discovery of the main 4450 kilometer gap within the Saturn rings, the Cassini division.

Another discovery of Cassini is the zodiacal light, an exaterristical sky illumination on the ecliptic plane caused by interplanetary dust and the reflected sunlight within the dust. He assumed this zodiacal light as the pointer from the Christmas star to the stable of Bethlehem as within the gospel of Matthew.

At the 14th of September 1712 Cassini died in Paris. His son Jacques Cassini (1677-1756) became director of the observatory of Paris, then.

[هانیه امیری]

(Galle, Johann Gottfried (1812–1910

http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Galle.jpg (http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Galle.jpg)



German astronomer who, with Heinrich Louis d'Arrest, made the first observation of Neptune (1846) based on calculations by Leverrier. Though Galle was the first to observe Neptune, its discovery is usually credited to John Adams (who made an earlier calculation) and Leverrier. Galle also discovered the crêpe ring of Saturn (1838) and suggested a method for determining the scale of the Solar System based on the observation of asteroids.

[Amin-Mehraji]

christiaan huygens

1629-1695

Dutch



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Christian Huygens was a Dutch physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and inventor who was the leading proponent of the wave theory of light. He also made important contributions to mechanics, stating that in a collision between bodies, neither loses nor gains "motion'' (his term for momentum). In astronomy, he discovered Titan (Saturn's largest moon) and was the first to correctly identify the observed elongation of Saturn as the presence of Saturn's rings.

Christian Huygens was born at the Hague on April 14, 1629, and died there on July 8, 1695. He generally wrote his name as Christiaan Hugens, and it is also sometimes written as Huyghens.


aslo you can read more about Christiaan Huygens at This Link (http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bl_huygens.htm)

[هانیه امیری]

(Kuiper, Gerard Peter (1905–1973





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Dutch-born American astronomer and graduate of the University of Leiden, who worked at the Yerkes Observatory and later at the McDonald Observatory. His name rhymes with "viper". Early in his career, Kuiper studied binary star and multiple star systems. His observations led him to conclude in 1935 that the average separation between the components of binary stars was about 20 AU, which is similar to the distance of the gas giants from the Sun. Following renewed difficulties with the catastrophic hypothesis of planetary formation, Kuiper speculated in 1951 that "it almost looks as though the solar system is a degenerate double star, in which the second mass did not condense into a single star but was spread out – and formed the planets and comets." Extrapolating from the fact that about 10% of binaries contained companion stars that were one-tenth or less as massive as the primaries, Kuiper suggested there might be 100 billion planetary systems in our Galaxy alone.

Kuiper's spectroscopic studies led to the discovery of the atmosphere of Titan (1944) and features, afterward known as Kuiper bands, in the spectra of Uranus and Neptune, due to methane. He discovered Uranus's moon Miranda (1948) and Neptune's moon Nereid (1949). He also detected carbon dioxide in the martian atmosphere (1947) and suggested that lichenlike planets might exist on the martian surface .

[هانیه امیری]

(Van Allen, James Alfred (1914–2006



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American space scientist who contributed to 24 satellite and space probe missions, including some of the early Explorers and pioneers 10 and 11. His research focused on planetary magnetospheres and the solar wind. He began high-altitude rocket research in 1945, initially used captured V-2s, and is best remembered for his discovery of the radiation belts that were subsequently named after him .

Van Allen received a BS from Iowa Wesleyan College in 1935, and a M.S. (1936) and Ph.D. (1939) from the California Institute of Technology. After a spell with the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution of Washington, where he studied photodisintegration, Van Allen moved in 1942 to the Applied Physics Laboratory at The Johns Hopkins University where he worked to develop a rugged vacuum tube. He also helped to develop proximity fuses for weapons used in World War II, especially for torpedoes used by the United States Navy. By the fall of 1942, he had been commissioned as an officer in the Navy and was sent to the Pacific to field test and complete operational requirements for the proximity fuses. After the War, Van Allen returned to civilian life and began working in high altitude research, first for the Applied Physics Laboratory and, after 1950, at the University of Iowa. Van Allen's career took an important turn in 1955 when he and several other American scientists developed proposals for the launch of a scientific satellite as part of the research program conducted during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957–58. After the success of the Soviet Union with Sputnik 1, Van Allen's Explorer spacecraft was approved for launch on a Redstone rocket. It flew on January 31,1958, and returned enormously important scientific data about the radiation belts circling the Earth. Van Allen became a celebrity because of the success of that mission, and went on to other important scientific projects in space. In various ways, he was involved in the first four Explorer probes, the first Pioneers, several Mariner projects and the Orbiting Geophysical Observatory Van Allen retired from the University of Iowa in 1985 to become Carver Professor of Physics, Emeritus, after having served as the head of the Department of Physics and Astronomy from 1951.

[رخساره روشنی]

http://blogs.miaminewtimes.com/riptide/JackHorkheimer.jpg


Jack Horkheimer, born Foley Arthur Horkheimer (June 11, 1938 – August 20, 2010), was the executive director of the Miami Space Transit Planetarium. He was best known for his astronomy show Jack Horkheimer: Star Gazer, which started airing on PBS on November 4, 1976.

Horkheimer started his astronomy career in 1964, when he was 26, after he moved to Miami and met astronomer Arthur Smith. Smith was the president of the Miami Museum of Science and the chief of the Southern Cross Astronomical Society Horkheimer started volunteering at the planetarium writing shows and was later offered a position with the museum.

Smith asked Horkheimer to run the Miami Space Transit Planetarium when it opened in 1966. Horkheimer's shows were successful and the planetarium went from losing money to becoming profitable. Horkheimer worked his way up to become the planetarium's educational director and eventually the executive director.

Horkheimer changed the planetarium show from a science lecture to a multimedia event including music, lights and narration. He created the Child of the Universe show for the planetarium in 1972, which became famous and used in other planetariums across the country. Sally Jessy Raphael portrayed the voice of the solar system in this show. The show won an international award from the society of European astronomers in 1976. Horkheimer became the executive director of the Miami Space Transit Planetarium in 1973 and stayed there for 35 years until his retirement in 2008.
for read more please click on this link :http://www.starhustler.com

[هانیه امیری]

(Joy, Alfred Harrison (1883–1973



http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Joy.jpg (http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Joy.jpg)




American astronomer best known for his work on stellar distances, the radial motions of stars, and variable stars. After teaching astronomy for a number of years and spending a year at Yerkes Observatory, Joy came to Mount Wilson Observatory in 1915. There he applied Walter Adams's method of spectroscopic parallax to determine the distances of thousands of stars. When he retired nearly half of all published radial velocities of stars had been found at Mount Wilson, largely through his efforts. His measurements of the radial velocities of Cepheid Variables confirmed the distance and direction of the galactic center and the Sun's rate of revolution about it. He also invented the classification of T Tauri stars and made extensive studies of them. Although he officially retired in 1948, Joy remained active at Mount Wilson for a total of nearly 66 years.

[هانیه امیری]

(-Levy, David H. (1948

Canadian amateur astronomer who, in 1993, along with Gene and Carolyn shoemaker, discovered the most famous comet of recent years. Comet shoemaker-Levy 9, as it became known, attracted the attention of public and professionals alike when it smashed into Jupiter in July 1994. Levy discovered his first comet in 1984 and since then has discovered 20 more – 8 from his own backyard and 13 in collaboration with the Shoemakers at Palomar Observatory. He is also the author of a number of popular astronomy books.

[Amin-Mehraji]

joseph-louis lagrange

1736-1813
French



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The Joseph Lagrange Biography tells of his contributions in the fields of analysis and number theory to classical and celestial mechanics. He was called the greatest mathematician of the 18th century.



The Early Years

Joseph Louis Lagrange was born Giuseppe Lodovico Lagrangia on January 25, 1736 in Turin, Italy. His father, Giuseppe Francesco Lodovico Lagrangia, was of Italian and French descent. His mother, Teresa Grosso, was the only daughter of a medical doctor from Cambiano near Turin. Lagrange was the oldest of 11 children, but only 2 lived to adulthood. Even though his father was the Treasurer of the Office of Public Works and Fortifications, they were not rich. His father lost his money due to financial speculations.




Mathematics

According to the Joseph Lagrange Biography, Lagrange later was quoted as saying, If I had been rich, I probably would not have devoted myself to mathematics. Lagrange went to the College of Turin, but it wasn’t until he read a paper by Edmund Halley that he developed an interest in mathematics. He was basically self taught and at the age of 18 wrote his first paper on mathematics. By the age of 20 he was a professor of geometry in the royal artillery school in Turin. By his mid twenties he was known as the greatest living mathematician. Lagrange also created the calculus of variations. The Joseph Lagrange Biography continues with him going on to become the director of mathematics at the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Above all he changed Newtonian mechanics into a branch of analysis and it is now called Lagrangian mechanics.During his years in Prussia, Lagrange married his Vittoria Conti. This union was not a happy one and according to Lagrange’s wishes had no children. His wife died shortly after their marriage.




Astronomy


In 1764 Lagrange studied the three-body problem of the Earth, Sun and Moon and in 1766 the satellites of Jupiter. In 1772 he found the special-case solution to the problem. It is now known as Lagrangian points. Also in 1764 he began work on why the same side of the Moon always faced Earth. In 1780 he formally proved his solution with the idea of generalized equations of motion.According to the Joseph Lagrange Biography he wrote numerous papers on the problems of astronomy. The most important being:


1773, the attraction of ellipsoids
1774, the motion of the nodes of a planet
1778 & 1783, the method of determining the orbit of a comet




Later Years


In 1786, according to the Joseph Lagrange Biography, he migrated to Paris. He was given the title of senator and also became a count in the first empire of France. He became a member of the French Academy of Sciences. It was while in France that he met and married his second wife, Renee-Francoise-Adelaide Le Monnie, the daughter of one his colleagues. In 1808 Napoleon made Lagrange a Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour and a Comte (count) of the empire. A week before his death in Paris, he was awarded the Grand Croix of the Order Imperial de la Reunion.It is believe that the frequent bouts of melancholy contributed to his death. On April 10, 1813, Lagrange passed away in Paris France. He was later buried in the Pantheon in Paris.In his honor a street in Paris is named rue Lagrange. In Turin the street where he was born is named via Lagrange.

[هانیه امیری]

(Bappu, (Manali Kallat) Vainu (1927–1982



[/URL][URL="http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Bappu.jpg"]http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Bappu.jpg (http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Bappu.jpg)




Prominent Indian astronomer who did much to set up new observatories and astronomical research centers in his native country. His father was an assistant at the Nizamiah Observatory in Hyderabad, so that Bappu was exposed to astronomy from an early age. He won a scholarship to Harvard and co-discovered a comet, named Bappu-Bok-Newkirk, shortly after his arrival. Later he went to the Palomar Observatory where he and Colin Wilson discovered a relationship, now known as the Wilson-Bappu effect, between the luminosity of certain kinds of stars and some of their spectral characteristics. In 1953, he returned to India and worked at the Uttar Pradesh State Observatory before becoming director of the observatory at Kodaikanal, the oldest in India. He helped establish the Indian Institute of Astrophysics at Bangalore and set up the largest telescope in India, a 2.34-meter reflector at the Kavalur Observatory – an instrument named in his honor in 1986.

[هانیه امیری]

(Digges, Leonard (c.1520–c.1559) and Thomas (c.1545–1595




English father and son who pioneered the construction of the telescope (Leonard) and its use (Thomas). Leonard Digges was educated at Oxford and made his name as a mathematician, a surveyor, and an author of several books. He invented a reflecting telescope a century before Isaac Newton, and may also have built a refracting telescope.

Thomas was only 13 when his father died but had John Dee, a mathematician, as his guardian. In 1571, Thomas published a mathematical work of his own and a posthumous book, Pantometria, by his father in which Leonard's invention of the telescope is discussed. Thomas's observations of the supernova of 1572 were used by Tycho Brahe in his analysis of this event. Thomas was also the first to promote in Britain the heliocentric view of the solar system due to Copernicus. He was also a pioneer of the enlarged, stellar universe, maintaining that the stars, instead of being fixed to a crystalline sphere, were other suns lying at great distances. However, although he helped pave the way for others, like Huygens, to contemplate the possibility of extrasolar planets and life, he continued to regard the Sun as special and centrally located in the Universe. It has been suggested that Digges may have met Giordano Bruno during the latter's stay in England and derived some of his ideas from the Italian.

[هانیه امیری]

(Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus (1758–1840



http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Olbers.gif (http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Olbers.gif)




German physician and skilled amateur astronomer who discovered the asteroids Pallas (1802) and Vesta (1807), rediscovered Ceres based on a position predicted by Carl Gauss, and found five comets (in 1798, 1802, 1804, 1815, and 1821) one of which (that of 1815) bears his name. He also formulated a method of calculating the orbits of comets (1779), which became standard in the 19th century; rediscovered the planet Uranus (1781); proposed that the pressure of light is responsible for comet's tails always pointing away from the Sun (1811); and first drew attention to what became known as Olbers Paradox (1823).

Olbers was a supporter of pluralism and of the increasingly contentious idea that the Moon was inhabited by intelligent beings . In the same paper in which he presented his famous paradox, he wrote that it is "most highly probable" that "all of infinite space is filled with suns and their retinues of planets and comets."

[هانیه امیری]

(Rømer, Ole (1644–1710




Also called Olaus, a Danish astronomer who first showed that light has a finite velocity. He noticed that jupiter eclipsed its moons at times differing from those predicted and correctly concluded that this was due to the finite nature of light's velocity, which he calculated as 227,000 km/s (the modern value is 299,800 km/s.

[Amin-Mehraji]

Giuseppe Piazzi
1746-1826
Italian


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The Giuseppe Piazzi Biography basically begins when he became a Theatine monk. He went onto study both Mathematics and Astronomy. After his interest in Astronomy grew Piazzi obtained a grant from Prince Caramanico, Viceroy of Sicily. He built an observatory on top of one of the towers at the royal palace.

It was here that Piazzi discovered what he believed was a star. After studying it for four days he reasoned it was a planet located between Mars and Jupiter. He was afraid to announce it as such and instead claimed to have found a new comet. He later wrote Barnaba Oriani that he really thought it was something more than a comet but was afraid to announce it as such.

Carl Friedrich Gauss later determined the Piazzi was right and it was a small planet. Piazzi named it Ceres after the Roman and Sicilian goddess of grain. It turned out to be the largest of the asteroids.

The Giuseppe Piazzi Biography goes on to tell of his work in the publishing two new star catalogues. The second catalogue contained over 7600 stars.

In 1923, the 1000th asteroid was named 1000 Piazzi in his honor and more recently the Hubble telescope captured what appears to be a crater on Ceres. It has been informally named Piazzi.

[هانیه امیری]

(Adams, Walter Sidney (1876–1956



http://www.daviddarling.info/images/AdamsW.jpg (http://www.daviddarling.info/images/AdamsW.jpg)



American astronomer who discovered the first white dwarf star. The son of American missionaries, Adams was born in Syria.

He followed his Dartmouth professor, Edwin Frost, to Yerkes Observatory in 1901, and accompanied his Yerkes director, George Hale, to Mount Wilson Observatory in 1901. Adams served as director of Mount Wilson from 1923 to 1946. His spectroscopic studies of the Sun and stars led to the discovery, with Arnold Kohlschütter, of a spectroscopic method for finding stellar distances: they showed that the relative intensities of spectral lines could be used to determine absolute magnitudes of both giant and main sequence stars. With Hale, he worked on the discovery of magnetic fields in sunspots and used photography to measure the differential rotation of the sun. His spectroscopic observations of the martian atmosphere in the 1920s and 1930s showed that Mars was unlikely to support anything but the most primitive kinds of vegetation . With Theodore Dunham, Jr., he shared the discoveries of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of venus and the molecules CN and CH in interstellar clouds. Adams identified Sirius B as the first known white dwarf, and his measurement of its gravitational redshift was taken as confirming evidence for the general theory of relativity.

[Amin-Mehraji]

Johann Bode
1747-1826
German


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Johann Elert Bode is one of the greatest German astronomers famous for his “Titus-Bode Law” that became significant in determining the orbit from Uranus. Bode was born in Hamburg. His father, Johann Jakob Bode, worked as a merchant. During his childhood years, he suffered from an eye disease that caused blindness in his right eye. Unlike the rest of the astronomers, Bode never had formal schooling yet his father introduced him to merchandising.

Bode’s interest in astronomy, mathematics and geography started in 1765 when his father’s personal physician Heinrich Reimarus introduced him to Johann Busch, a professor of mathematics from Hamburg. With the help of Busch, Bode wrote and published a book entitled “Bode 1766”. Bode started conducting formal studies in astronomy and mathematics at an early age of 19. Among his early notable observations includes the “Venus Transit” in June 1769 and “1770 Comet”. In 1768, Bode published his second book entitled “Instruction for The Knowledge of the Starry Heavens”. The book was released in multiple editions. The second edition of the book contained thorough observations on the “Empirical Law of Planetary Distance” which was initially revealed by J.D Titus. Bode applied some of Titus’ conclusions and finally named it as the Titus-Bode Law during the late 17th century.

Bode went to Berlin in 1772 after accepting the job of teaching math and astronomy at the Berlin Academy of Sciences. The academy’s astronomy head and Berlin Observatory Chief Director Johann Bernoulli became impressed with his interpretation on the calculations of the “Schlesien Calendar” by Christine Kirch. He worked with Christine’s great grandfather Gottfried Kirch and Lambert for the foundation of the “German Astronomical Yearbook and Ephemeris” in 1774.

In July 1774, Bode married Johanna Lange, a close relative of the Kirch family. Lange died after giving birth to their fourth child. In 1783, Bode married Sophia Dorothea, Lange’s oldest sister. Bode married Charlotte Lehmann after Dorothea’s early death. He retired from the Berlin Observatory in 1825 after four decades of serving under the directorial position. A year after his retirement, Bode died in Berlin at the age of 79.

[Amin-Mehraji]

Pierre-Simon Laplace
1749-1827
French



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Laplace, Pierre Simon de, Marquis de Laplace, a French astronomer and mathematician. Laplace explored almost every branch of the physical sciences. For his Celestial Mechanics (5 volumes, 1799-1825), he is called the Newton of France. In this work Laplace showed that the movements of the solar system were in conformity with Newton's theory of gravitation. He convinced his age that the solar system was a stable self-regulating machine. He proposed the theory that the solar system developed from condensed gases.


aslo you can read more about Pierre-Simon Laplace at This Link (http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Laplace/RouseBall/RB_Laplace.html)

[هانیه امیری]

(Marius, Simon (1573–1624




German astronomer (also known as Mayr) who named Jupiter's Galilean moons. He and Galileo both claimed to have discovered them in 1610 and likely did so independently. Marius was also the first to observe the Andromeda Galaxy with a telescope and one of the first to observe sunspots.

[Amin-Mehraji]

Friedrich Bessel
1784-1846
Prussian



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Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm (1784-1846), a German astronomer, was the first to measure stellar parallax, an apparent change in a star's position as a result of the earth orbiting the sun. Bessel functions, the mathematical functions that he derived, are still used extensively in physics.

While an apprentice at a mercantile firm, Bessel taught himself navigation and astronomy. In 1804, he calculated the orbit of Halley's Comet based on observations made in 1607. He sent his work to astronomer Wilhelm Olbers, who encouraged him to make further observations and improve his calculations. Olbers then saw that Bessel's work was published and recommended him as assistant at the observatory in Lilienthal. Germany. After four years there, Bessel became director of the observatory at Königsberg, where he remained the rest of his life. In 1810, he also became professor of astronomy at the University of Königsberg.

Around 1817, Bessel introduced a set of mathematical functions, now called Bessel functions, to help understand the movements of three bodies under mutual gravitation. Bessel's contributions to geodesy, the mathematics related to the size, shape, and gravitational field of the earth, included his 1841 calculation of the amount by which the earth's shape deviates from a sphere.

Bessel laid the foundations for establishing the scale of the universe. He accurately measured the positions of about 50,000 stars and observed very small motions of one star relative to another. He showed that 61 Cygni, the star with the greatest proper motion known to him, apparently moved in an ellipse yearly. Bessel attributed this motion, called parallax, to the motion of the earth around the sun. By calculating the distance from the earth to 61 Cygni, Bessel became the first to accurately measure the distance of a star other than the sun. He also predicted the existence of another planet beyond Uraunus—Neptune—which was discovered after his death.

[هانیه امیری]

(Nicholson, Seth Barnes (1891–1963




[/URL][URL="http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Nicholson.jpg"]http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Nicholson.jpg (http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Nicholson.jpg)





American astronomer who discovered Jupiter's moons Lysithea, Ananke, Carme, and Sinope, and also did important work on sunspots. Nicholson was educated at Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa, and at the University of California (Ph.D., 1915). As a graduate student at the University of California he was photographing the recently-discovered eighth moon of Jupiter (now known as Pasiphae) with the 36-inch Crossley reflector when he discovered a ninth (Sinope). He computed its orbit for his Ph.D. dissertation. At Mount Wilson Observatory, where he spent his entire career, he discovered three more Jovian satellites, as well as a Trojan asteroid, and computed the orbits of several comets and Pluto. His main work at Mount Wilson involved observing the Sun with the observatory's tower telescope, and he produced annual reports on sunspot activity and magnetism for decades. He and Edison Pettit used a vacuum thermocouple to measure the temperatures of the Moon, planets, sunspots, and stars in the early 1920s. Their temperature measurements of nearby giant stars led to some of the first determinations of stellar diameters.

[هانیه امیری]

Tom Johnson, 1923 – 2012



[/URL][URL="http://media.skyandtelescope.com/images/Tom_Johnson_Celestron.jpg"]http://media.skyandtelescope.com/images/Tom_Johnson_Celestron.jpg (http://media.skyandtelescope.com/images/Tom_Johnson_Celestron.jpg)



Thomas J. Johnson, the creator of the modern Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope and the founder of Celestron, died early yesterday morning (March 13, 2012), according to Celestron president and CEO Joe Lupica. Johnson was 89.

He ranked among the most important figures shaping the last half century of amateur astronomy.

Johnson was in his early 30s when, in 1955, he used his World War II experience as a radar technician, and postwar employment in the electronics industry, to establish a company called Valor Electronics. Based in Gardena, California, Valor made various components for military and industrial customers, and by the early 1960s it had expanded to roughly 100 employees.


As Valor was growing, so too was Johnson’s own interest in amateur astronomy. After first purchasing 4-inch and later a 10-inch Newtonian reflector, Johnson then headed down a path followed by many amateurs of the day and turned to the hobby of telescope making. The first scope he made was an 8-inch f/4 rich-field Newtonian, soon followed by a 12-inch Cassegrain. Meanwhile, in 1960 he established an "Astro-Optical" division of Valor.

From This Link (http://www.skyandtelescope.com/news/home/Tom-Johnson-xxxx1502012-142534025.html)

[هانیه امیری]

(Purcell, Edward Mills (1912–1997






http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Purcell.jpg (http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Purcell.jpg)




American physicist at Harvard who shared with Felix Bloch (at Stanford) the 1952 Nobel Prize in Physics for his independent work on the nuclear magnetic moment, discovering nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) in solids. Purcell was also the codiscoverer, with Harold I. Ewen, in 1951, of the 21- centimeter line of hydrogen.

In a lecture delivered at Brookhaven National Laboratory, in 1960, Purcell attacked the notion that intersteller travel would ever be possible, arguing that radio signals were probably the best way of establishing contact with other intelligent races. A similar discouraging outlook for flight between the stars was expressed by Pierce and Von Hoerner.

[هانیه امیری]

(Barnard, Edward Emerson (1857–1923









[/URL][URL="http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Barnard.jpg"]http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Barnard.jpg (http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Barnard.jpg)



One of the greatest observational astronomers of his time, and discoverer of Jupiter's moon Amalthea and the nearby star that now bears his name - Barnard's star -. Born into poverty in Nashville, Tennessee, Barnard began work in a photographic studio when he was only nine. He became a brilliant amateur astronomer, discovering 10 comets before the age of 30.



In 1887, Barnard joined the staff of Lick Observatory and used the new 36-inch Lick refractor to discover Amalthea and the first comet to be found by photography, both in 1892. In 1895 he moved to the University of Chicago's not-yet-completed Yerkes Observatory and helped test the great 40-inch refractor following its installation

Barnard spent 28 years as an astronomer at Yerkes using the giant refractor as well as the 10-inch Bruce wide-field telescope, built specially for him, to measure star positions and to pioneer wide-field photography for studying the structure of the Milky Way. He discovered the star, subsequently named after him, with the largest known proper motion, and numerous dark clouds and globules.

[هانیه امیری]

(Morgan, William Wilson (1906–1994

American astronomer who, with Philip Keenan (1908–2000) and Edith Kellman (1911–2007), introduced stellar luminosity classes and developed the Morgan-Keenan classification of stellar spectra. With Donald Osterbrock and Stewart Sharpless he demonstrated the existence of spiral arms in the Galaxy using precise distances of O and B stars obtained from spectral classifications. Morgan helped originate the UBV system of magnitudes and colors, and, with Nicholas Mayall, developed a spectral classification system for giant galaxies. After three years of undergraduate study at Washington and Lee University, Morgan joined the staff of the Yerkes Observatory, where he spent his entire career, including three years as director. While at Yerkes he earned bachelor's and doctoral degrees at the University of Chicago. Eschewing theory, his research focused on morphology – the classification of objects by their form and structure.

[Amin-Mehraji]

John Flamsteed




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John Flamsteed, (born Aug. 19, 1646, Denby, near Derby, Derbyshire, Eng.—died Dec. 31, 1719, Greenwich, London), founder of the Greenwich Observatory, and the first astronomer royal of England.

Poor health forced Flamsteed to leave school in 1662. He studied astronomy on his own and later (1670–74) continued his education at the University of Cambridge. In 1677 he became a member of the Royal Society. Ordained a clergyman in 1675, Flamsteed in 1684 received the income of the living of Burstow, Surrey. His report to the Royal Society on the need for a new observatory resulted in the founding (1675) of the Royal Greenwich Observatory, of which he was the first director (and hence astronomer royal). He found that he himself had to supply all the instruments at Greenwich, apart from a few gifts; he was forced to take private pupils to augment his income. A small inheritance from his father, who died in 1688, provided the means to construct a mural arc, a wall-mounted instrument for measuring the altitudes of stars as they passed the meridian.

The latter part of Flamsteed’s life passed in controversy over the publication of his excellent stellar observations. He struggled to withhold them until completed, but they were urgently needed by Isaac Newton and Edmond Halley, among others. Newton, through the Royal Society, led the movement for their immediate publication. In 1704 Prince George of Denmark undertook the cost of publication, and, despite the prince’s death in 1708 and Flamsteed’s objections, the incomplete observations were edited by Halley, and 400 copies were printed in 1712. Flamsteed later managed to burn 300 of them. His own star catalog, Historia Coelestis Britannica (1725), listed more stars (3,000) and gave their positions much more accurately than did any other previous work. Some stars, such as 61 Cygni, are still known by their numbers in his system

[Mojtaba.M]

Neil Armstrong


http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Neil_Armstrong_pose.jpg/220px-Neil_Armstrong_pose.jpg

Neil Alden Armstrong (August 5, 1930 – August 25, 2012) was an American astronaut, test pilot, aerospace engineer, university professor and United States Naval Aviator. He was the first person to walk on the Moon. Before becoming an astronaut, Armstrong was a United States Navy officer and had served in the Korean War. After the war, he served as a test pilot at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics High-Speed Flight Station, now known as the Dryden Flight Research Center, where he logged over 900 flights. He graduated from Purdue University and completed graduate studies at the University of Southern California.
A participant in the U.S. Air Force's Man In Space Soonest and X-20 Dyna-Soar human spaceflight programs, Armstrong joined the NASA Astronaut Corps in 1962. His first spaceflight was the NASA Gemini 8 mission in 1966, for which he was the command pilot, becoming one of the first U.S. civilians in space.[not in citation given] On this mission, he performed the first manned docking of two spacecraft with pilot David Scott.
Armstrong's second and last spaceflight was as mission commander of the Apollo 11 moon landing in July 1969. On this mission, Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin descended to the lunar surface and spent 2½ hours exploring, while Michael Collins remained in orbit in the Command Module. Armstrong was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Richard Nixon along with Collins and Aldrin, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor by President Jimmy Carter in 1978, and the Congressional Gold Medal in 2009.
On August 25, 2012, Armstrong died in Cincinnati, Ohio. at the age of 82 due to complications from blocked coronary arteries.




http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Neil_Armstrong_1956_portrait.jpg/170px-Neil_Armstrong_1956_portrait.jpg


http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Armstrong_and_Scott_with_Hatches_Open_-_GPN-2000-001413.jpg/250px-Armstrong_and_Scott_with_Hatches_Open_-_GPN-2000-001413.jpg

Recovery of the Gemini 8 spacecraft from the western Pacific Ocean


http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Ap11-s69-31740.jpg/250px-Ap11-s69-31740.jpg



The Apollo 11 crew portrait. Left to right are Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Buzz Aldrin.








Reference:

en.wilipedia

:wink:

[Amin-Mehraji]

Joseph von Fraunhofer
1787-1826



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Born in Straubing, Bavaria, on 6 March 1787. Orphaned at the age of 11, he did an apprenticeship as lens and mirror maker, after which he became employed in a Munich company making scientific instruments. He learned mathematics and became very skilled in applied optics. He is especially known for the discovery of the dark absorption lines known as Fraunhofer lines in the Sun's spectrum, and for making excellent optical glass and achromatic telescope objectives. Fraunhofer worked at the Optical Institute at Benediktbeuern, a secularised Benedictine monastery devoted to glass making. There he discovered how to make the world's finest optical glass and invented incredibly precise methods for measuring dispersion. In 1818 he became the director of the Optical Institute. Due to the fine optical instruments he had developed, Bavaria overtook England as the centre of the optics industry. Even the likes of Michael Faraday were unable to produce glass that could rival Fraunhofer's. In 1821 Fraunhofer built the first diffraction grating, comprised of 260 close parallel wires. Well versed in the mathematical wave theory of light, Fraunhofer used his diffraction grating to actually measure wavelength of specific colors and dark lines in the solar spectrum. He also built and studied reflection gratings. His career eventually earned him an honorary doctorate from the University of Erlangen in 1822. In 1824, he was awarded the order of merit, became a noble, and made an honorary citizen of Munich. Like many glassmakers of his era who were poisoned by heavy metal vapours, Fraunhofer died young, in 1826 at the age of 39. His most valuable glassmaking recipes are thought to have gone to the grave with him

[Amin-Mehraji]

Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve
Born: 15-Apr-1793
Birthplace: Altona, Germany
Died: 23-Nov-1864
Location of death: St. Petersburg, Russia
Cause of death: unspecified



http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/ngcic/persons/pic_pers/struve_w1.jpg (http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/ngcic/persons/pic_pers/struve_w1.jpg)


German-Russian astronomer, the son of Jacob Struve, was born at Altona on the 15th

of April 1793. In 1808 he entered the university of Dorpat (Yuriev), where he first

studied philology, but soon turned his attention to astronomy. From 1813 to 1820 he

was extraordinary professor of astronomy and mathematics at the new university and

observer at the observatory, becoming in 1820 ordinary professor and director. He

remained at Dorpat, occupied with researches on double stars and geodesy until 1839,

when he removed to superintend the construction of the new central observatory at

Pulkowa near St. Petersburg, afterwards becoming director. Here he continued his

activity until he was obliged to retire in 1861, owing to failing health. He died at St.

Petersburg on the 23rd of November 1864.

Struve's name is best known by his observations of double stars, which he carried on

for many years. These bodies had first been regularly measured by William Herschel,

who discovered that many of them formed systems of two stars revolving around their

common center of gravity. After him John Herschel (and for some time Sir James South)

had observed them, but their labors were eclipsed by Struve. With the 9.5" refractor

at Dorpat he discovered a great number of double stars, and published in 1827 a list of

all the known objects of this kind (Catalogus novus stellarum duplicium). His micrometric

measurements of 2714 double stars were made from 1824 to 1837, and are contained

in his principal work, Stellarum duplicium et multiplicium mensurae micrometricae (St.

Petersburg, 1837). The places of the objects were at the same time determined with

the Dorpat meridian circle (Stellarum fixarum imprimis duplicium et multiplicium

positiones mediae, St. Petersburg, 1852). At Pulkowa he redetermined the "constant of

aberration", but was chiefly occupied in working out the results of former years' work

and in the completion of the geodetic operations in which he had been engaged during

the greater part of his life. He had commenced them with a survey of Livonia

(1816-19), which was followed by the measurement of an arc of meridian of more than

3.5° in the Baltic provinces of Russia (Beschreibung der Breitengradmessung in den

Ostseeprovinzen Russlands, 2 vols. 4to, Dorpat, 1831). This work was afterwards

extended by Struve and General Tener into a measurement of a meridional arc from the

north coast of Norway to Ismail on the Danube (Arc du méridien de 25° 20' entre le

Danube et la Mer Glaciale, 2 vols. and 1 vol. plates, 4to, St. Petersburg, 1857-60).

[shaham]

Spectacular Thanks Moderator

[xavi]

سلام

اینها همش انگلیسی هست....میشه بگین این دانشمند امون فضانورد بوده یا ستاره شناس...مرسی

[legalapply]

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